Environmental lead risk in the 21st century

Lead has played a vital role in the technological development of human societies over centuries, but exposure to this toxic element following leakage into the environment poses significant risks to public health. This study assesses the contemporary environmental lead risk as global lead production and use are rapidly increasing driven largely by the rising demand for electrification. We show that the environmental lead exposure persists due to legacy contamination, ongoing coal usage, and insufficient protection of workforces during production, use, and recycling of lead-acid battery and other lead- containing products, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. We estimate that contemporary 33 childhood lead exposure alone leads to an annual global economic loss exceeding $3.4 trillion (2021 US dollars adjusted for purchasing power parity), with pronounced disparities between high- and low- 35 and middle-income countries. To prevent a large-scale resurgence in lead exposure, we identify four critical areas for policy intervention.