From flat foot to fat foot: Structure, ontogeny, function, and evolution of elephant "sixth toes"

John R. Hutchinson*, Cyrille Delmer, Charlotte E. Miller, Thomas Hildebrandt, Andrew A. Pitsillides, Alan Boyde

*Corresponding author for this work

Research output: Contribution to journalArticle (Academic Journal)peer-review

57 Citations (Scopus)

Abstract

Several groups of tetrapods have expanded sesamoid (small, tendon-anchoring) bones into digit-like structures ("predigits"), such as pandas' "thumbs." Elephants similarly have expanded structures in the fat pads of their fore- and hindfeet, but for three centuries these have been overlooked as mere cartilaginous curiosities. We show that these are indeed massive sesamoids that employ a patchy mode of ossification of a massive cartilaginous precursor and that the predigits act functionally like digits. Further, we reveal clear osteological correlates of predigit joint articulation with the carpals/tarsals that are visible in fossils. Our survey shows that basal proboscideans were relatively "flat-footed" (plantigrade), whereas early elephantiforms evolved the more derived "tip-toed" (subunguligrade) morphology, including the predigits and fat pad, of extant elephants. Thus, elephants co-opted sesamoid bones into a role as false digits and used them for support as they changed their foot posture.

Original languageEnglish
Pages (from-to)1699-1703
Number of pages5
JournalScience
Volume334
Issue number6063
DOIs
Publication statusPublished - 23 Dec 2011

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